The Aqqoyunlu (White Sheep) Empire

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Origin and Organisation of the Akkoyunlu Tribe

It is probable that the name of the Akkoyunlu tribe that was a nomadic Turkmen community was attributed to them due to the sheep herds that bred. Various Farsi and Arabian resources have stated that they were from the roots of Seljuk and Artuklu beys without giving any information about the origin of the Akkoyunlu tribe. Despite these statements, in the work titled as Kitab-ı Diyarbekriye that was the history of Akkoyunlu State as stated above, it has been stated that the Akkoyunlu tribe came from the lineage of Oguz Khan.

Accordingly, it was stated that the Akkoyunlu tribe was a tribe of Bayindir branch of Oguz people. It has also been stated that the Akkoyunlu people came to the Kipchak country in the period of the Prophet (century VII), and then to Arran Savanna; and that they were in the service of the Seljuk State in the period of Seljuks; and the region of Diyarbakir was given to them as a feoff.

The history of Akkoyunlu tribe that was from the branch of Bayindir from Oguz people is known since the years of 1300. The first known character in the history pertaining to the Akkoyunlu State was Tur-Ali Bey. The Akkoyunlu State had abolished the Karakoyunlu State (1469) and founded a great Turkmen state instead of him. The chiefs and rulers of the Akkoyunlu State that ruled the state until that time were as follows:

1. Tur-Ali Bey (?-1360):

His father was Pehlivan Bey from Akkoyunlu Beys. It has been known that he had settled in Diyarbakir with the Turkmens that were submissive to him. It has also been known that he had joined Gazan Han (1248-1291) from Ilhanli State at a very young age and participated in his military expedition to Syria.

2. Fahreddin Kutlu Bey (1360-1389):

His father was the chief of the Akkoyunlu State that replaced Tur-Ali Bey. His period was a fairly active period, and he had had great struggles with Kadi Burhaneddin, Trebizond Greek Empire, Egypt Mameluke Sultanate and their cruel rival, the Karakoyunlu State. The grave of Fahreddin Kutlu Bey who died in the year of 1389 was in the village of Sinor in Bayburt.

3. Ahmed Bey (1389-1397):

He was the son of Fahreddin Kutlu Bey. He was enthroned as the sovereign of the Akkoyunlu State pursuant to the death of his father. Ahmed Bey who had to recognise the high domination of Kadi Burhaneddin for a long period was killed by him in the year of 1397.

4. Fahruddin/Bahauddin Kara-Yülük Osman Bey (1397-1435):
He was the ruler that reinforced the domination of the Akkoyunlu State in the Eastern Anatolia. He was one of the sons of Fahreddin Kutlu Bey. He defeated Kadi Burhaneddin who was his rival that killed his elder brother, Ahmed Bey. Then, he killed him. Afterwards, he was involved in a severe struggle with the Karakoyunlu Kara Yusuf about the domination over the Turkmens and the capture of Eastern- Southeastern Anatolia.

5. Celâluddin Ali Bey (1435-1438):

He was the son of Kara-Yülük Osman Bey who was appointed as the crown prince, and he was enthroned as the sovereign of the Akkoyunlu State in the place of his father.

6. Nuruddin Hamza Bey (1438-1444):

He was the other son of Kara-Yülük Osman Bey'.

7. Cihangir Bey (15/10/1444-1453):

He was the son of Celâlüddin Ali Bey. He was able to establish the union of the Akkoyunlu principality setting off from Urfa that was under his domination.

8. Nusretuddin Ebû-Nasr Uzun Hasan Bey (1435-6/1/1478):

The person that promoted the Akkoyunlu principality to the position of a state was Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan Bey. He annihilated Cihân-shah who was the great ruler of Karakoyunlu State (1467), and then Ebu Said (1469) who was the ruler of Turkestan. Then, he established dominion in the entire Iran, Iraq, the Caucasus and the Eastern Anatolia. His target was the capture of the regions towards the Western Anatolia. But this target of him fell short as a result of the defeat in Otlukbeli (11th August 1473) against the Ottoman ruler, Fatih Sultan Mehmed (1451-1481). Despite this defeat, Uzun Hasan succeeded in his survival, and he did not abandon the Akkoyunlu regions and lands with the centre of Tabriz although he abandoned the Central and Western Anatolia totally.

Uzun Hasan who died in the year of 1478 was a great statesman. Besides, he accelerated the public works that were neglected for a long time in the country. He arranged various laws in order to prevent the tribal fights, and the conflicts of pastures and grasslands that destroyed the Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia. These rules have been called as "Hasan Ruler's Laws" in the region for a long time. Moreover, Ottomans had left most of these laws in effect when they captured the Eastern and Southeastern regions with small modifications and amendments on them.

9. Sultan Halil (6/1/1478-24/12/1490):

He was the son of Uzun Hasan Bey.

10. Sultan Yâkub (15/7/1478-24/12/1490):

He was the other son of Uzun Hasan Bey and he was the last intelligent and capable Akkoyunlu ruler. Pursuant to his death, the state was on the verge of decadence.

Pursuant to Sultan Yakub, the other rulers that came to power were respectively Sultan Baysungur (24/12/1490-May 1492), Sultan Rüstem (May 1492-the beginning of the year 1496), Sultan Dâmâd/Ahmed Göde/(the beginning of 1496 -1498), Sultan Mehmed (1498-1500), Sultan Elvend (1500-1504), and Sultan Murad (1504-1508). The Akkoyunlu State was abolished by Safevi dynasty that was another Turkish organisation.

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Turkmen Tribes that formed the Political Organisation of the Akkoyunlu State


1. Bayındır Branch :

It is the Oguz community from which the Akkoyunlu dynasty had emerged.

2. Pürnek (or Pornak) Tribe:

It was a powerful tribe of the Akkoyunlu State. They still survive in the north of Selim nowadays. There is a village called with the name.

3. Musullu Tribe :

It is the second most powerful tribe of the Akkoyunlu State.

4. Hamza-Hacılu, Kara-hacılu, Izzedin Hacılu Tribes:

These are the secondary tribes.

5. Emîrlü,

6. Aleppo Turkmens:


Most of these Turkmens were composed of Afshar Turkmens. Among these Turkmens, particularly the Afshar people under the dominion of Mansur Bey and the Bayat group that was another Afshar community called as Kutbegilüler can be mentioned.
When Akkoyunlu State gained power, various Turkmen communities joined to this confederation. We can mention about Dulkadirli nation, Çepniler, Agaceriler, Kacar and Doger communities among these groups.

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Before the establishment of a political union, these communities lived in the summer camping groups within the environs of Euphrates River and Tigris River in Urfa and Mardin in the south and in Bayburt in the north. They lived in these plateaux in the winters and wandered around during the season. The cruel struggles with the Karakoyunlu Turkmens who were their greatest enemy caused both communities to suffer from heavy losses and the destruction of the regions in which they lived.

Pursuant to the collapse of the Ilhanli State, these two tribes were involved in the struggles among the dynasties of Celayir, Coban and Sutay that fought with one another in relation with the wreckage of the Ilhanli State. Of these two tribes, Karakoyunlu group was in the service of Celayirli dynasty while Akkoyunlu community was the rival of this dynasty and they were in the service of Sutayogullari dynasty that dominated in the regions of Mosul and Diyarbekir.

As a result of this situation, the dynasty had to withdraw to the Central Anatolia. The Akkoyunlu State had collaborated with Artukogullari principality that dominated in Mardin and they established dominion in some cities and castles within the environs of Diyarbakir. Therefore, the Akkoyunlu tribe started to gain power and subdue the other tribes and branches gradually. They started to turn into a nation. The tribes and clans that joined them became Akkoyunlu although they preserved their names.

Tur Ali Bey, the chief of the Akkoyunlu tribe that settled in the region of Diyarbakir had attacked to Trebizond-Greek State and even to the capital of this state in the years of 1340-1341 and 1343. He advanced towards Trebizond together with the emirs of Bayburt and Erzincan in the year of 1348, but he could not attain any success. Aleksios III, the emperor of Trebizond wanted to please Tur Ali Bey who was the strongest one among these allied Turkish beys and thus, to prevent the attacks of the other beys. Therefore, he provided the marriage of his sister, Maria Despina with Kutlu Bey who was the son of the aforesaid bey (1352/1352).

The mother of Kara-yülük Osman Bey who was the founder of the Akkoyunlu State was this princess stated above. Kutlu Bey had probably replaced his father towards the year of 1364, and went to Trebizond with his wife, Despina in order to visit Aleksios. The emperor paid him the visit in the same year. Kutlu Bey's son, Kara-yülük Osman Bey was also married one of the daughters of Aleksios.

Kutlu Bey was involved in most of the struggles for the emirate that carried on in the Eastern Anatolia in the second half of the century XIV. He had provided service for those who claimed for bey principality in return for his benefits. Upon the death of his Ruler, Pir Huseyin (1378), Mutahharten captured Erzincan. Upon the attempt of the Sivar ruler to capture this city in the same year, he asked help from the Akkoyunlu State. The Akkoyunlu army under the command of one of Kutlu Bey's sons defeated the forces of Sivas sent towards them.

Upon the declaration of sovereignty by Kadı Burhanettin in Sivas (1381), Kutlu Bey's son, Ahmed Bey advanced towards Sivas. Then, he defeated and killed Emîr Yusuf Çelebi who was assigned as an officer to defend the city. But, he could not capture this city. However, after six years, Kutlu Bey's sons took shelter in Kadı Burhaneddin and begged pardon due to their attitudes. Upon the acceptation of their requests, they left their little brother, Kara-yülük Osman Bey as security and departed. According to another rumour, Kara-yülük was afraid of his brothers that envied his courage and fame. Therefore, he left them and got into the service of Kadi Burhaneddin.

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Kutlu Bey died in the year of nearly 1389 and he was buried in a village of Bayburt. It is known that he had four sons (Hüseyin, Ahmed, Pîr Ali ve Kara-yülük).

In the beginning, the relations between Kadi Burhaneddin and Kara-yülük Osman Bey was based on friendly terms; but then, they were on strained terms due to a reason that was not known for origin. The event of the murder of Sheikh Mueyyid was the apparent reason of this conflict.

Karayülük who left Burhaneddin was followed and chased by him. Karayülük who had only six hundreds of cavalryman with him totally defeated the forces of Burhaneddin that were composed of twenty thousands of people and he took Burhaneddin as prisoner and then, killed him (July 1398). Then, he besieged Sivas and wanted the delivery of the city. Alâeddin Ali Çelebi who became the ruler of Sivas in the place of his father, Burhaneddin asked help from Kara Tatar bey who was the father-in-law of Kara-yülük against him. However, Karakoyunlu forces federated them in a fight and besieged the city. Upon this event, Bayezid I sent a crowded army under the command of his son, Suleyman Celebi towards Sivas. Kara-yülük was defeated and Sivas and most of the regions of Kadi Burhaneddin's country were annexed to the lands of Ottoman State.

Kara-yülük Osman Bey who gave up the hope for the capture of Sivas collaborated with Mutahharten who had been the enemy of the Akkoyunlu State and the ally of Karakoyunlu State in the past, but who showed him great respect for the annihilation of Kadi Burhaneddin.

Then, Kara-yülük applied to Berkuk and got in the service of the Mameluke State. However, upon the death of Berkuk, the struggles and conflicts in Egypt turned into a dangerous situation and Yildirim Bayezid started to prepare for an expedition towards Syria. Upon these developments, Kara-yülük turned away from the Mameluke State. Then, through the mediation of Mutahharten, he went to Tamburlaine that spent the winter in Karabağ in the year of 1399. Thus, he got into the service of him (in 1400).

In the course of the advance of Tamburlaine towards Anatolia, Kara-yülük had been the pioneer of the army, and he had participated in the captures of Sivas, Elbistan and Malatya. Tamburlaine gave Malatya that he captured from the Ottomans to Kara-yülük. In the course of the Tamburlaine's military expedition towards Syria, Osman Bey and his sons participated in this expedition and provided great help. In the return from this expedition, Tamburlaine besieged Mardin, and advanced towards Iraq before long. Then, he left the blockade of the city to Karayülük and he also gave him the city of Diyarbakir.
Karayülük who captured Mardin forced the ruler of Hasankeyf to subdue for submission and give taxes and soldiers through his son.

Karayülük participated in the second military expedition of Tamburlaine towards Anatolia together with his brothers in the year of 804/1402. He played a significant role in the dissolution of the left branch of the Ottman army in Ankara War. Tamburlaine spent the winter together with Karayülük in Anatolia. While he left Anatolia, he gave the entire principality of the region of Diyarbakir to Karayülük. Karayülük Osman Bey came to Diyarbakir and gathered all the other Akkoyunlu communities under a structure of his domination. Then, he established the Akkoyunlu State. Pursuant to the departure of Tamburlaine, Karayülük benefited from the lack of a political union in the Eastern Anatolia, and captured Urfa, Kemah, Erzincan, Harput, Erzurum. After the long fights, he also captured Mardin and established dominion in the basin of Coruh River. Although he was defeated in the first war with Kara Yusuf, the ruler of Karakoyunlu State that was his cruel enemy (1409), the parties could not attain any superiority against each other in the second war in the year of 1417 and they reached an agreement against the threat of the Mameluke State. Probably upon the encouragement of Shahruh, Karayülük despoiled the environs and besieged Mardin in July 1418. However, Karayülük heard of the news about the advance of Kara Yusuf upon the Akkoyunlu State, he retreated towards Diyarbakir. In the course of this retreat, he was defeated by Kara Yusuf.

Upon the death of Kara Yusuf (1420), Iskender Bey replaced him. In his period, the struggles between these two Turkmen states became violent and continued for a long time. Kara-yülük besieged Mardin again in March 1421 and he was defeated by Iskender Bey. Osman Bey who could not cope with the Karakoyunlu State all alone took side with Shahruh in the course of the wars that took place between Shahruh and the Karakoyunlu State in Eleşkirt (1421) and Selmas (1429). Iskender Bey who could not gain any success against Shahruh advanced from Tabriz towards Erzurum in order to take shelter in Murad II who was the Ottoman ruler. In the course of this advance, he was waylaid by Kara-yülük upon the order of Shahruh. When his enemy did not permit him to pass from the path, Iskender Bey had to fight with them, and he won the war despite the insufficiency of his forces (September 1435). Karayülük and his two sons and some of the Akkoyunlu beys were among those who had died in the course of this war.

Pursuant to the death of Karayülük Osman Bey, his sons were involved in the struggles for the sovereignty. Ali Bey who was the crown prince among these princes obtained the firman for the bey principality from both Shahruh and the Mameluke sultan. On one hand, he tried to stop the attacks of the Karakoyunlu State; on the other hand, he fought with Hamza Bey who was the governor of Mardin. When he understood that he could not cope with both forces at the same time, he asked help from Murad II and the Mameluke sultan. He had provided the support of the Mameluke State for a specific period, but the help that he hoped from the Ottoman State could not be achieved and he got disappointed. Then, he withdrew to Syria. Therefore, the Akkoyunlu principality was under the dominion of his brother, Hamza Bey who had overcome and been superior to Kara Yusuf's son, Ispend (1438).

Hamza Bey who subdued his brothers and nephews was recognised by the Mameluke sultan. He tried to reestablish the Akkoyunlu union. When Hamza Bey died (848/1444), Cihangir who was his brother, Ali Bey's son came to power as the sovereign of the bey principality; but, some of the members of the dynasty that opposed to him asked help from Cihan-Shah who was the ruler of the Karakoyunlu State. Meanwhile, Elvend, one of the Karakoyunlu princes took shelter in Cihangir. This incident increased the tension between the two states and the Karakoyunlu State besieged and captured Erzincan in the year of 1450. However, Cihangir insisted upon not to surrender Elvend and this insistence led to the capture of Malatya, Urfa and Mardin by the Karakoyunlu State.

Cihangir sent his mother, Sara Hâtûn to the Mameluke sultan and asked help and at least the mediation for the peace, but any help could not be obtained. Upon this development, the Akkoyunlu forces recaptured Urfa and Mardin with their own forces (1451). Cihangir's younger brother, Uzun Hasan Bey collected forces in Ergani, and defeated the Karakoyunlu forces within the environs of Urfa. However, the conflicts and fights between the two sides could not reach to a conclusive state. Cihan-shah sent a large army under the command of his son, Muhammed Mirza. Upon this event, Cihangir hid himself within the city walls of Diyarbakır. Uzun Hasan came to provide help his brother; but the fights that lasted during the whole year was vain. Finally, Cihan-shah heard of the news about the advance of Baysungur's son, Sultan Bubur from Timur State towards Rey. Therefore, he sent envoys and proposed the state of peace. Moreover, he asked for the daughter of Cihangir in marriage with his son, M. Mirza. Thus, he tried to eradicate the hostility between the two states. Despite all these bad conditions, Cihangir had tried to collect together all the countries under the domination of his grandfather, Kara-yülük and he had been successful in this desire to some extent. In the course of the struggles, the greatest assistant of Cihangir was his brother, Uzun Hasan Bey.

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Uzun Hasan Bey who had been the greatest assistant of Cihangir in the course of the struggles and fights with the Karakoyunlu State captured Diyarbakir upon a sudden attack in the year of 1453. Then, he defeated his brothers, Cihangir and Uveys and he totally defeated the Karakoyunlu forces that came to provide help to these brothers in a crushing manner (1457). Upon this success of him, his brothers were submissive to him. Uzun Hasan abolished the Eyyubi domination in Hisn Keyfa in the same year.

In the following year, he forced Dulkadir-oglu Arslan Bey that had attacked to the country of the Karamanoglu state to retreat. Uzun Hasan captured several castles in Georgia in the year of 1459 and abolished the dominion of Egil beys that alleged that they were from the Seljuk roots. He recaptured the places and regions that had been captured by Karakoyunlu State before and he also captured Sebinkarahisar and Koyulhisar and started to organise raids towards the Ottoman country.

When his country was captured by the Ottomans, Candaroglu Kızıl Ahmed took shelter in Uzun Hasan and Mehmed II set in motion in order to capture Trebizond. Upon these events, Uzun Hasan claimed for his rights upon the Trebizond-Greek State since he was married with the daughter of the Emperor Ioannes IV. Due to these reasons stated above, the relations between the Akkoyunlu State and the Ottoman State were on strained terms. The forces sent by Uzun Hasan in order to prevent the Ottoman army that advanced towards Trebizond were defeated by Gedik Ahmet Pasha. Upon this defeat, Uzun Hasan sent his mother, Sara Hâtûn to Fatih. He wanted the retreat of the Ottoman army; but his proposal was rejected. Ottomans captured Trebizond and abolished this state (1461). However, some of the treasury that was despoiled was divided for his wife and sent to Uzun Hasan.

When he slipped off from his occupation in the west, Uzun Hasan organised some raids and attacks against Georgia in the years of 1462, 1472 and 1477. Uzun Hasan who considered himself much more powerful gradually started to intervene in the internal affairs of his weak neighbours. Upon the death of Karaman bey Ibrahim Bey, Uzun Hasan provided the enthronement of his crown prince, Ishak Bey'. Uzun Hasan sent forces towards the Central Anatolia in the year of 1472 and captured Tokat, Kayseri and the regions of Hamideli. Meanwhile, the Akkoyunlu army tried to capture Konya together with Pîr Ahmed and Kasim Beys from the Karamanogullari principality; they could not achieve any success for the people of the city were faithful to the Ottomans. Moreover, they were defeated by the forces of of the prince Mustafa within the environs of Beysehir. In order to establish dominion in his country again, Pir Ahmed Bey continuously provoked Uzun Hasan who has taken shelter in him against the Ottoman State.

Upon the strained terms with the Ottoman State pursuant to the abolition of the Karakoyunlu State and their relations with Venetians forced the Akkoyunlu people to come down towards the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, their friendly relationship with the Mameluke State was destroyed. The military expedition organised by Uzun Hasan towards Syria (1472) ended up with failure. Therefore, the Euphrates River became the border between the Mameluke State and the Akkoyunlu State. Although Uzun Hasan was defeated by the Ottomans in Otlukbeli, the Mameluke State abstained from the Akkoyunlu State.

As for the movements of Uzun Hasan in the east, the reinforcement of the Akkoyunlu State had made their eternal rival, Karakoyunlu State suspicious of them. Cihan-shah set in motion from Tabriz in order to overwhelm Uzun Hasan in the spring of 1467. However, the ruler of the Akkoyunlu State sent letters of submission and fidelity, and he succeeded in gaining time. As a result, when the winter season drew near, Cihan-shah discharged some of his forces and tried to retreat from Muş. At the same time, Uzun Hasan organised a sudden attack and defeated the Karakoyunlu forces (11th November 1467). He took Cihan-shah as prisoner and then, executed him.

Cihan-shah's son, Hasan Ali who replaced him was involved in a war with the Akkoyunlu State with his jerry-built forces in the spring of the following year; but he was defeated in this war. He applied to Ebu Sa'id from Timur State and instigated him to capture Iraq and Iran. Ebû Sa'îd who set in motion from Herat in March 1468 came to Meshed over Serahs and Nîşâbûr. Then, when he came to Meshed, Uzun Hasan sent envoys to Ebû Saîd and proposed the state of peace; but he could not attain any result from this proposal. When Ebû Saîd passed through Bistâm and Rey and came to Sultâniye, Uzun Hasan gave up his thought about the capture of Tabriz that was still under the dominion of Karakoyunlu State. Then, he retreated to his winter residence in Karabag. However, Ebû Saîd advanced towards Karabag upon the encouragement of his commanders. He as defeated by Uzun Hasan within the environs of Mahmud-âbâd. While he tried to run away, he was caught and then, executed.

Hasan Ali who withdrew to Hamedan was killed by Uzun Hasan's son, Ugurlu Mehmed in April 1469. Therefore, Uzun Hasan had established dominion in the affluent regions of Azerbaijan and Iran and moved the capital city of the government to Tabriz.
Uzun Hasan was able to establish a powerful state that included Iran, the Eastern Anatolia and Iraq. He sent an envoy named as Hajji Mehmed to Venice with the intention of the capture of Egypt and the Ottoman countries (1472), and proposed for an alliance against the Ottoman State. The Republic of Venice accepted this proposal; and he sent the envoy together with some firearms to Tabriz. However, both states could not achieve the results that they hoped from this contact.

Fâtih Sultan Mehmed was occupied in the arrangements for a military expedition against this hostile stance and attitudes of Uzun Hasan. On the other hand, he proposed the state of peace to Venetia in order to prevent any Venetian attack. However, when the Venetians wanted the surrender of Euboea island to them, the negotiations were disconnected. Fatih who spent the winter of 1472 with the proper arrangements had stated as a reply to a letter of Uzun Hasan that "From now on, we do not need any envoys and will speak with our swords". Thus, he explained that he had decided for a war. The Ottoman army set in motion from Scutari towards the east under the command of the ruler in March 1473.

When Uzun Hasan heard of the arrival of Fâtih in Erzincan, he set in motion from Tabriz together with his forces composed of seventy thousands of people. The vanguard forces of both sides encountered within the environs of Tercan and the Akkoyunlu forces overwhelmed by superior force. Moreover, Uzun Hasan's son, Ugurlu Mehmed Bey trapped Has Murad Pasha who was the bey governor of Roumelia and put him and most of his soldiers to the sword. Upon this event, the Ottoman army started to retreat towards Bayburt. As a result of the arrangements that were organised by Uzun Hasan, the Ottomans were forced to accept the state of war in Otlukbeli (11th August 1473). In this war, the concentration of Ottoman firearms against the ruler of the Akkoyunlu State hindered the resistance of Uzun Hasan any longer. Therefore, he had to run away. The Ottomans acquired abundant prisoners and spoils.

Uzun Hasan not only lost his political prestige, but also incurred great damage and loss in respect of lands and military aspects. Despite these losses, he continued his military activities. However, he became sick in the course of his return from the fourth military expedition to Georgia (1477). Then he died in Tabriz on the date of 6th January 1478. He was buried in the Nasiriye theological school.

Uzun Hasan who turned the Akkoyunlu principality in to a big state was a tall, intelligent, reasonable, determined, brave, fair, and a modest ruler that protected the scholars and the artists. However, his addiction to the alcoholic drinks was his weakness. Uzun Hasan had constructed a magnificent palace in Tabriz and he was the founder of several scientific and charitable institutions. He had tried to organise the Akkoyunlu State taking the Ottoman State as a model in respect of the administrative and military organisation.

Upon the death of Uzun Hasn, the Akkoyunlu State lots its old power and strength. The princes that were the members of the dynasty and the beys that supported them started to neglect the central authority all around the country. Halil Sultan could establish dominion in the sultanate through the efforts of his mother, Seljuk-shah Begum. When he killed his brother, Maksud Bey, some rebellions burst out against him. Although Halil Sultan suppressed the rebellions of his uncle Cihangir's sons, Murad and Ibrahim Beys, he was killed by his brother, Yakup Bey who was the governor of Diyarbakir in the sixth month of his sultanate.

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The new ruler, Sultan Yakub was able to provide the support of his father's emirs and he could easily suppress the rebellions of Elvend Bey who was the son of his brother, Sultan Halîl and Köse Hacı Bey who was the son of Sheikh Hasan, one of the sons of Kara-yülük in Shiraz and Isfahan in the first years of his sultanate. He defeated the forces sent by the Mameluke Sultan with his army under the command of his beys in the year of 1480. Moreover, Seybeg who was the commander of the Egypt army was killed in this war. Pursuant to the suppression of the civil turmoil and conflicts, Sultan Yakub organised a military organisation to Georgia in the year of 1482 and captured several castles including Ahiska. From that date on, Yakub endeavoured great efforts for the development of his country with public works. He had protected the scholars and artists like his father, and he had even written poems in Turkish and Farsi languages. His death at a very young age (1490) led to the dissolution of Akkoyunlu State.

Some of the beys of the tribes declared the sovereignty of Baysungur who was Yakub's son at a very young age of childhood. The allegations of the other princes for sovereignty were eradicated within a short period. Baysungur's tutor, Sufi Halil killed some of Akkoyunlu princes and some of the beys that he considered as his rivals and established dominion in the state. However, most of the beys who got tired of his tyranny collaborated with Suleyman Bicen. They defeated and killed him. Afterwards, Suleyman established dominion in the administration as the tutor of the ruler. After a while, some of the beys declared the sovereignty of Rustem Bey who was kept as a prisoner in the castle of Alincak and defeated Suleyman. Therefore, Baysungur had to take shelter in his grandfather, Ferruhyesar who had been the governor of Shirvan together with his brothers. Thus, his sultanate could only last for a year.

The period of domination pertaining to Rustem Bey that lasted for five years since 1492 passed with turmoil and conflicts. He eradicated Baysungur and his brother, Hasan. Then, he suppressed the rebellions that burst out in Isfahan and Gilan. Afterwards, they provided the Karakoyunlu branches to become his disciples. He defeated Ali who was the son of Erbil Sheikh Haydar who wanted to establish a separate state and killed him. However, after a short while, Rustem Bey suffered from the treachery of his beys. He was defeated by Göde Ahmed Bey who was the son of Istanbul's son, Ugurlu Mehmed and the son-in-law of Bayezid II. Then, he was killed (1496). Ahmed Bey who tried to apply the administrative system of the Ottoman State started to kill some of the Akkoyunlu celebrities that were the main reason for the civil turmoil. Upon these events, the tribal beys rebelled and killed him. Pursuant to the murder of Ahmed Bey whose sultanate lasted for only one year, the civil turmoil and conflicts within the Akkoyunlu State increased gradually.

Elvend and Mehmed Beys who were the sons of Yusuf, Uzun Hasan's son and Sultan Yakub's son Murad Bey were declared as the sovereign by the rival beys in various places. Mehmed Bey lost his life in the course of these struggles for sultanate. Finally, the Akkoyunlu country was shared between Elvend and Murad Beys (1501). When the Akkoyunlu State was on the verge of decline and dissolution, the Safevi State emerged as a political power in Azerbaijan. Pursuant to the murder of Sheikh Haydar's son, Ali, his other son Ismail had become the sheikh of Safevi sect. He was the member of Karakoyunlu nation. Upon the collapse of this state, He had gathered the tribes and clans that did not participate in the tribal confederation of the Akkoyunlu State or those that participated in it but could not get along with them. Besides, he also collected those who were mistreated as a result of the oppression caused by the civil turmoil and conflicts. He was able to collect them together around him. He had also diffused his influence into the central regions of Anatolia with concentrated propaganda through his agents. When he considered himself as a strong person in military respect, he firstly captured some of the regions of Erran and Shirvan. Then, he advanced towards Azerbaijan and defeated Elvend Bey. He forced him to run away to Diyarbakir (1503) and he captured the entire lands of the Akkoyunlu State.

Upon the death of Elvend Bey (1504), Göde Ahmed's son, Zeynel was invited by the Akkoyunlu beys for the enthronement as the sovereign of the Akkoyunlu State. Zeynel arrested Emîr Bey Musullu who had been the governor of Diyarbakir for a long time and some other beys. He captured Hasankeyf and tried to establish dominion in Urfa. In the meantime, he was defeated by Emîr Bey Musullu who had fled away from the prison and his supporters and taken prisoner. Emîr Bey Musullu was submissive to Shah Ismail who had come to Elbistan. The Safevi ruler who felt a deep hatred against the Akkoyunlu people did not abstain from killing those that were the members of Akkoyunlu dynasty. Therefore, the members of the dynasty who could save their lives took shelter in Egypt, the Ottoman country and Dulkadir-oglu principality. In the course of the Caldiran expedition, the members of the Akkoyunlu dynasty had participated in the retinue of Sultan Selim. Pursuant to the collapse of the Akkoyunlu State, the Akkoyunlu nation continued their lives in Anatolia. Apparently they were submissive to the Ottoman State. However, they had mostly participated in Bandit rebellions since the century XVI.

[ALTAR]

Sources:

www.ozturkler.com/data_english/0003/0003_02_21.htm
www.ozturkler.com/data_english/0003/0003_02_22_3.htm

[H. İhsan Erkoç]

The Aqqoyunlu Empire has been a very interesing one indeed.

Another interesting thing about the Aqqoyunlu is that the reason why the greatest ruler in the Book of Dede Qorqut (legends of Western Oghuz) had the name Bayundur Khan is because the earliest versions of ths book was written in Aqqoyunlu or ex-Aqqoyunlu territories, hence giving the Aqqoyunlu ruling tribe's name to the legendary great ruler.

[Deleted]

The other thread was gone off-topic and closed thanks to one of our dear friends here.

Here I present sources of what language Qara-Qoyunlu spoke, and poems of Jahanshah Qaraqoyunlu himself. Its a very extensive research.

intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/eBooks/Articles/Jihan-Shah%20Qara-Qoyunlu%20Minorsky.pdf



The Azerbaijani Turkish are clearly observed in poems of Qaraqoyunlu ruler Jahanshah.

[Druzhina]

Late 15th century Aqqoyunlu Illustrations of Costume & Soldiers

The battle between Khusrau Parviz and Bahram Chubineh, from a late 15th century Khamseh
Bijan Takes The Rein To Aid Gustaham, from a 1493 Shahnama
The Battle Between Kay Khusraw and the King of Makran, from the Big Head Shah-nama, 1494
Kay Khusrau receives his rival Fariburz, from the Big Head Shah-nama, 1494
Bizhan Brings Back the Head of Human, 1494 Shahnama
The Battle of the Twelve Heroes, 1494 Shahnama
Kay Khusrau reviews his troops, 1494 Shahnama
. Persian Cavalryman, late 15th century, by Ian Heath
. Persian Cavalryman, c. 1495, by Ian Heath


MIRROR SITE:
Turkmen Illustrations of Costume & Soldiers

Druzhina
Illustrations of Costume & Soldiers

[H. İhsan Erkoç]

Nice, thanks.